Link to the citations in Scopus. Together they form a unique fingerprint. View full fingerprint. Bilingual Research Journal , 36 2 , In fact, the strongest TWI advantages were observed in math. A potential explanation for increased math ability in TWI students comes from research on the non-linguistic, cognitive benefits of bilingualism for a review, see Bialystok, For example, Bull and Scerif assessed third graders with executive functioning tasks e.
Moreover, executive functioning can help students focus on mathematical lessons during class instruction, which could result in enhanced learning of mathematical principles and ultimately better performance on standardized math tests. Thus, potential enhancements in executive functioning for TWI students could lead to their advantages in math and to some extent in reading as well. The improved math and reading performance observed in minority-language TWI students may also be due in part to these students being taught academic concepts in their native language.
In the earlier grades, the minority-language TWI students were taking reading and math class in Spanish, their native and likely stronger language; this may have increased comprehension of the lessons and enabled the students to learn the material more effectively. In contrast, the TPI students were learning about reading and math in English, their non-native language; this may have negatively impacted their ability to understand and subsequently learn the material.
Thus, receiving instruction in the native language may account for the increased performance in TWI minority-language students, along with potential advantages in executive functioning and metalinguistic awareness. While interpreting the reading and math enhancements observed in the TWI students, it is important to consider some limitations of the current study. Notably, students were not fully randomized to groups and were not tested before the start of the program.
Therefore, there is a possibility that the superior performance of TWI students was driven by a selection bias, as students with higher social and economic resources may have been more likely to enroll in a TWI program and may have been advantaged from the outset. While potentially contributing to the results, a selection bias is not able to fully account for the TWI advantages.
Moreover, if a selection bias were driving the TWI advantages exclusively, then we would expect to see the same benefits in both math and reading measures, across all grades, but that was not the case. Thus, while a selection bias may have played a role in the results, it cannot fully account for the observed TWI benefits.
A second potential limitation is that minority-language students took the standardized test in their non-native language. Therefore, the test may have been testing language ability more so than conceptual understanding of the material, thus negatively impacting internal validity. However, it is important to reiterate that comparisons were made between two different minority-language groups and not between minority-language groups and majority-language groups , and thus students who took the test in their non-native language were only compared to other students who also took the test in their non-native language.
Moreover, it should be noted that although the test may have had reduced internal validity, this testing situation is common in educational settings, where students often have to take tests in their non-native language thereby increasing external validity. A third limitation to consider is the small sample size in some of the groups, particularly in the TPI groups.
The reduced sample sizes also limit the ability to detect significant differences between groups; yet the sample sizes were adequate for statistically significant differences to emerge, as the TWI-S group reliably outperformed the TPI group in the oldest grade.
Nevertheless, follow-up studies with larger samples are necessary to verify the current findings. In future work, researchers should also consider the effects of two-way immersion education on other aspects of cognitive functioning apart from reading and math test performance , as two-way immersion may have far-reaching benefits. For example, two-way immersion may improve components of the executive function system, such as selective attention, inhibitory control, and task switching.
Indeed, practice focusing on one language, suppressing the other language, and shifting between two languages has been shown to increase executive function ability in bilingual children and may have the same effect in two-way immersion students e. To assess the effects of two-way immersion on executive function, in addition to reading and math standardized tests, reliable and valid measures of attention, inhibition, and switching, such as the Attentional Network Task, the Stroop task, and the Simon task, should also be administered.
If two-way immersion benefits executive function, it could bring about improvements on several other components of cognitive performance, given that executive function is a domain-general process that is highly involved in a wide range of cognitive activities Biederman et al. For example, as noted earlier, improved executive function may have contributed to the enhancements seen in reading and math, by helping students pay attention to the material taught during reading and math class. If advantages in the aforementioned cognitive processes are observed on experimental tasks, further studies could be conducted to examine whether these benefits translate into noticeable real-world behaviors.
To that end, researchers can administer more ecologically valid experimental tests along with subjective measures of academic and social functioning like peer, teacher, and parent evaluations of the students.
Additionally, researchers should consider using longitudinal designs to determine whether these hypothesized effects of two-way immersion extend into later grades. A second understudied topic to consider in future research is how learning academic concepts in one or both languages affects the ability to transfer knowledge to a non-academic context.
For example, if certain social studies or science concepts are taught to majority-language students only in Spanish, will these students remember them as well when they are out of the classroom and in an English-speaking context? According to studies on language-dependent memory e. On the other hand, since many of the concepts are likely taught in one language and later revisited in the other language, cases of mismatching linguistic contexts may be infrequent.
Moreover, in situations where a concept is taught in both English and Spanish, memory for these concepts may be especially strong, as encoding in two different contexts may lead to deeper encoding and more retrieval routes. Thus, two-way immersion education may affect performance in and out of the classroom in many ways, and researchers should aim to understand these effects.
In closing, the results of the current study help to advance the debate surrounding the effectiveness of bilingual education programs. We found that minority-language and majority-language students enrolled in a TWI program show improved math and reading performance on standardized tests in English. Finally, beyond the direct focus of the current study, it is necessary to underscore another benefit of the TWI program.
In addition to the potential improvements in academic performance, TWI students also stand to gain proficiency in both languages of instruction.
This ability to communicate in two languages and interact with a larger proportion of the population is likely an asset for these students as they enter an increasingly globalized world. We conclude that two-way immersion models are beneficial in multiple ways and should be seriously considered when designing and implementing educational programs. The authors thank Dr. Steve Zecker for statistical advice, Dr. Margarita Kaushanskaya and Dr.
Daphne Sajous-Brady for help with data entry and organization, and the Northwestern University Bilingualism and Psycholinguistics Research Group for helpful suggestions on the manuscript. We appreciate the generosity of the school district that shared the data to be included in the present analyses. Would it be fun to be a fish? They are, after all, quite different from us.
Fish have no ears as we do. Their bodies are covered with thin, flat plates called scales. The only sounds they know are what they feel using certain scales along their sides. These are special scales called lateral lines. We get oxygen from the air by using our lungs. Fish get oxygen from the water by using the gills on the sides of their heads. We can play in water and on land, but fish must stay in the water all the time. Fish never get hold or cold.
They are called cold-blooded because they are always the same temperature as the water around them. That means they have no need for hot soup, or cold lemonade, or cozy blankets, or cool sandals.
Marie and Robert were going to the store. The streets were not too busy until they got close to the store. Market Street was always busy. It was the last street they needed to cross. Then they looked both ways for cars. When they were sure it was safe, they crossed Market Street quarter. We usually have a good time when the three of us do things together.
National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Biling Res J. Author manuscript; available in PMC Sep 5. Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer.
For example, Collier and Thomas collected data from minority-language elementary stu- dents enrolled in a large school district in Texas and found that students in two-way immersion programs outperformed students in transitional bilingual education programs on both English and Spanish reading tests. If indeed two-way immersion programs lead to improved academic performance in majority-language students, it would suggest that two-way immersion can be utilized as an enrichment tool for both minority-language speakers and majority-language speakers.
Given the poten- tial ineffectiveness of these current educational programs, along with the ongoing debate among educators and policymakers as to which programs best promote academic success, additional research is necessary.
Our aim in the current study was to examine whether two-way immersion programs benefit academic achievement in both minority- and majority-language students.
We analyzed read- ing and math standardized test scores from third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade students enrolled in various educational programs in a single school district. We compared the test performance of minority-language students enrolled in a two-way immersion program to that of minority- language students enrolled in a transitional program of instruction.
Comparisons also were made between majority-language students participating in the two-way immersion program and majority-language students in the English-only mainstream classroom. METHODS Participants We obtained cross-sectional data from all 2, third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade public school students2 enrolled in a school district in the Chicago-land area see Note 3 for ethnic and financial information about the district. Students who met these criteria were automatically enrolled in the TWI-S program; however, parents could waive this service if they preferred to place their child in the TPI program or a mainstream classroom.
In the TWI-S group, In the TPI group, There were 1, majority-language students whose native language was English. Enrollment in the TWI-E program was determined through a lottery system. Information about the TWI-E program and the lottery process was provided at an orientation session held for parents of incoming kindergarten students.
Parents entered their children into the lottery by completing an online form. On average, A subset of the students 2 All students, including those with special needs, were counted in the sample. Instructional Programs All programs followed the same curriculum and differed only in the language of instruction.
The minority-language students in the two-way immersion program i. From kindergarten to third grade, TWI-S students were taught math in Spanish; in fourth and fifth grades, math was taught in English. Social studies and science were taught in Spanish from kindergarten through fifth grade.
For math, social studies, and science, minority- language students in the two-way immersion program were integrated with majority-language students in the two-way immersion program. The minority-language students in the transitional program of instruction i.
The students in the transitional program of instruction also received as-needed pull-out ESL instruction. The majority-language students in the two-way immersion program i. These students received math instruction in Spanish from kindergarten through third grade and in English in fourth and fifth grades. The majority-language stu- dents in the two-way immersion program were integrated with minority-language students in the two-way immersion program for math, social studies, and science.
The majority-language stu- dents in the mainstream classroom completed a similar curriculum as majority-language two-way immersion students, but English was used exclusively during all class instruction.
The percentage of time each program used English versus Spanish in the core subjects is presented in Tables 1 and 2. In all programs, the teachers met state-mandated standards. All teachers had completed a state- approved educational program, fulfilled a student teaching requirement, and passed the necessary Illinois Certification Testing System tests to obtain an Illinois Elementary teaching certificate.
Teachers of two-way immersion classes also had a Transitional Bilingual certificate or bilingual approval or endorsement. The teachers in the district had an average of Both tests were based on state standards of academic performance. Sample math and reading items for both tests are provided in the Appendix.
The State Standards Achievement Test is regarded as a reliable and valid assessment of read- ing and math achievement. Analyses of construct validity and criterion-related validity can also be calculated. The term construct validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. This type of validity can be assessed through mea- sures of dimensionality i. Divgi values for both subjects in all grades were greater than 3, meaning that the tests assess only a single dimension—math or reading—as they intend to assess.
A component of construct validity called internal construct can be quantified as well. Internal construct refers to whether performance on subscales of the test correlates with performance on the whole test.
If the subscales tap into the dimension of interest i. For both subjects in all grades, correlations were at least. Finally, a type of criterion-related validity called concurrent validity was considered.
This type of validity refers to whether the test in question correlates with other tests that are known to be valid assessments of the constructs of interest. Taken together, these measures lend support to the notion that the State Standards Achievement Test is reliable and valid. Data regarding the reliability and validity of the State Measure of Annual Growth in English are not available but are likely similar to the State Standard Achievement test, given that the State Measure of Annual Growth was designed to address the same content as the State Standard Achievement Test but with simpler vocabulary.
Specifically, TWI-S and TPI groups were compared at each grade level third, fourth, and fifth graders in 5 Because the minority- and majority-language students were administered different tests, no direct statistical comparisons were made between these two tests and groups. This test was chosen over the parametric t-test due to a discrepancy in sample sizes between groups.
In all comparisons, the scores were independent of each other and came from two samples, confirming the appropriate- ness of the Mann-Whitney U test.
Because of sufficient sample sizes i. It is important to note that comparisons across grades were done on cross-sectional data with no pretest and therefore should be interpreted with caution.
Comparisons were made at each grade level third, fourth, and fifth graders in each subject Reading and Math with Mann-Whitney U tests. The Mann-Whitney U test was used because of unequal sample sizes between groups. The scores for the Mann-Whitney U test were independent of each other and came from two different samples. Given the unequal sample sizes and unequal variances, the Mann-Whitney U test was deemed the most appropriate test for these analyses.
For the Mann-Whitney U analyses, asymptotic p values are provided. Moreover, Kruskal-Wallis tests and follow-up Tamhane T2 tests were conducted to analyze differences between grades within each program.
Because the MC group had more students with low SES, lower perfor- mance in this group could be attributable in part to the larger number of students who have limited economic or social resources.
Notably, the TWI-S students showed significant improvements across grade levels. These cross-sectional analyses suggest that the TWI program may lead to significant improvements across grades in minority-language students. Analyses were also conducted to examine differences among grade levels in each group. The analyses were performed with all students included as well as with low SES students removed. Both analyses yielded similar results; therefore, we only report the analyses with all students included.
Because the TWI-E students were already excelling in the early grades, the similar performance across grades likely reflects maintenance of high test performance.
In the minority-language stu- dents, standardized reading and math scores in the two-way immersion TWI-S group increased across grades, with students in higher grades performing better than students in lower grades. Conversely, in the transitional program of instruction TPI , standardized reading and math scores did not increase across grades, as students in the higher grades did not perform significantly bet- ter than students in the lower grades.
Moreover, in the oldest students i. In the majority-language students, the two-way immersion TWI-E group outperformed the mainstream classroom MC students in math in third, fourth, and fifth grade and in reading in third grade. These results are consistent with previous research e. While both the majority-language and minority-language TWI students exhibited reading and math advantages over their non-TWI peers, these benefits manifested at different times in the two groups.
The benefits were observed earlier in the majority-language TWI students i. Previous work suggests that it can take four to seven years for minority-language speakers to develop enough proficiency for successful academic performance e. The minority-language students may therefore have not had sufficient English-language profi- ciency in the early grades to perform successfully on the English-based tests, thereby delaying the benefits in minority-language students.
In addition, the early emergence of academic advantages in the majority-language students may be due in part to their higher socioeconomic status. A further explanation for why the benefits emerged earlier in the majority-language TWI students is that by third grade, majority-language TWI students may have had more bilingual experience than the minority-language TWI students. From kindergarten to second grade, stu- dents enrolled in the TWI program were taught math, science, and social studies in Spanish and reading and writing in their native language.
In other words, minority-language native- Spanish-speaking students received all of their instruction in Spanish until second grade, while majority-language native-English-speaking students received more balanced exposure to both of their languages. If degree of bilingual experience plays a role in developing the observed advan- tages, then majority-language TWI students may outperform their mainstream peers early on, while the minority-language students may not. These results suggest that balanced-language instruction may promote academic achievement in both majority- and minority-language students.
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